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Successful Practice of Regional Ethnic Autonomy in Tibet
民族区域自治制度在西藏的成功实践
【法宝引证码】

Successful Practice of Regional Ethnic Autonomy in Tibet

 

民族区域自治制度在西藏的成功实践

(September 2015, Beijing; the State Council Information Office of the People's Republic of China) (2015年9月 中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室)

Contents 目录
Preface 前言
. Old Tibet: Dark and Backward 一、旧西藏的黑暗与落后
II. Embarking on the Road to Development and Progress 二、走上发展进步道路
III. The Political System Suited to China's Actual Conditions 三、符合国情的政治制度
IV. The People as Masters of the Country 四、保障人民当家作主
V. Improving People's Welfare 五、大力增进人民福祉
VI. Protecting and Carrying Forward the Excellent Traditional Culture 六、保护和弘扬优秀传统文化
VII. Respecting and Protecting Freedom of Religious Belief 七、尊重和保护宗教信仰自由
VIII. Promoting Ecological Progress 八、推进生态文明建设
Conclusion 结束语
Preface 前言
Regional ethnic autonomy is a fundamental political system under socialism with Chinese characteristics - a basic policy through which to solve problems relating to ethnic minorities. 民族区域自治,是中国特色社会主义的一项基本政治制度,是中国解决民族问题的基本政策。
Regional ethnic autonomy in China means, under the unified leadership of the central government, that regional autonomy is exercised and organs of self-government are established for the exercise of the right of autonomy in areas where various ethnic minorities live in compact communities. The establishment of ethnic autonomous areas is determined by local ethnic relations, economic development and other conditions, with reference to historical background. China's ethnic autonomous areas are divided, according to the population and size of the compact communities in which ethnic minorities live, into autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures, and autonomous counties at three levels equivalent to provinces, cities divided into districts, and counties in the administrative division. 中国的民族区域自治,是指在国家的统一领导下,各少数民族聚居地方实行区域自治,设立自治机关,行使自治权。中国民族自治地方的设立是根据当地民族关系、经济发展等条件,并参酌历史情况而确定的。目前,中国的民族自治地方依据少数民族聚居区人口的多少、面积的大小分为自治区、自治州、自治县三级,行政地位分别相当于省、设区的市和县。
Tibet is an ethnic region mostly inhabited by Tibetans, who account for more than 92 percent of its present 3,175,500 population, which also includes 40 other ethnic groups, including the Han, Mongolian, Hui, Naxi, Nu, Drung, Monba, Lhoba, Deng and Sherpa people. According to the Constitution of the People's Republic of China (PRC), regional ethnic autonomy has been exercised in Tibet, and Tibet Autonomous Region, under which are the Monba, Lhoba and Naxi ethnic townships, has been founded, protecting by law the political rights of various ethnic groups in Tibet to participate as equals in administering state and local affairs. 在中国,西藏是一个藏族占多数的民族聚居区,目前总人口317.55万,其中藏族占92%以上;除藏族外,西藏还有汉族、蒙古族、回族、纳西族、怒族、独龙族、门巴族、珞巴族以及僜人、夏尔巴人等40多个民族成分。根据中国宪法,国家在西藏实行民族区域自治制度,建立西藏自治区,并设有门巴、珞巴、纳西等民族乡,依法保障西藏各族人民平等参与管理国家和地方事务的政治权利。
Since the democratic reform was carried out in 1959 and regional ethnic autonomy came into practice in 1965, Tibet has established the new socialist system and achieved historic leaps and bounds in its economic and social development. Tibet has taken a road that unites it with all China's ethnic groups and struggles to develop equally, achieve prosperity, and make progress with them. As part of the Chinese nation, the Tibetan people fulfill the right to participate equally in the management of state affairs; they are thus managers of local social affairs and masters of their own destiny, creating and sharing the material and spiritual wealth of Tibet. 自1959年实行民主改革和1965年实行民族区域自治制度以来,西藏不仅建立起全新的社会主义制度,而且实现了经济社会发展的历史性跨越。西藏成功地走上了与全国各族人民共同团结奋斗、共同平等发展、共同繁荣进步的光明大道。藏民族作为中华民族大家庭的一员,实现了平等参与管理国家事务的权利,成为管理西藏地方社会事务、主宰自己命运的主人,成为西藏社会物质财富、精神财富的创造者和享有者。
Although it has been only 50 years since the founding of Tibet Autonomous Region, great changes have taken place. Tibet is now in its golden age. 虽然西藏自治区从成立至今只有50年,但带来了翻天覆地的巨大变化。今日的西藏,是其历史上最为辉煌的时期。
I. Old Tibet: Dark and Backward 一、旧西藏的黑暗与落后
Even in the 1950s, Tibet was still a society ruled by feudal serfdom under theocracy. Having existed for several centuries, this wretched system stifled human rights and destroyed human qualities. It was thus the most backward mode of human society under which the people had no democratic, economic, social, or cultural rights, and their basic human rights were not protected. Old Tibet was a far cry from modern civilization. 直至20世纪50年代,西藏社会依然处于政教合一的封建农奴制统治之下。这种存在了几百年的黑暗制度,扼杀人权,摧残人性,是人类社会最为落后的制度。在这种制度下,人民既无民主权利,也无经济、社会、文化权利,各项基本人权根本得不到保障。旧西藏与现代文明的距离,十分遥远。
Under feudal serfdom, serfs suffered cruel political oppression and had no personal freedom or fundamental rights. 在封建农奴制度统治之下,农奴遭受残酷的政治压迫,没有任何人身自由,丧失了基本人权。
Old Tibet implemented laws, as represented by the "16-Article Code" and "13-Article Code," that oppressed serfs. These laws divided people into three classes and nine ranks, whereby nobles, Living Buddhas and senior officials were born into and thus constituted the upper class, while the broad masses of serfs constituted the lower class. Value accorded to life correspondingly differed. The value of the life of a person of the upper class was measured in gold according to his weight. The value of the lives of butchers, blacksmiths, and others of the lowest rank of the lower class was equivalent to hempen rope. When people of different classes and ranks violated the same criminal law, the criteria in old Tibet for imposing penalties and the means of punishment were quite different. The laws stipulated that the punishment for a servant who injured his master was to have his hands or feet chopped off, but a master who injured a servant was not required to pay compensation. Serf owners and serfs had overtly unequal standing according to law. Serf owners held absolute power over the lives of serfs and slaves, and ensured their rule over the latter through savage punishments, including gouging out eyes, cutting out flesh or tongues, cutting off hands or feet, pulling out tendons, and being put in manacles. 旧西藏实行以《十六法典》《十三法典》为代表的法律,对广大农奴实行野蛮压迫。这些《法典》将人分成“三等九级”,大贵族、大活佛和高级官员被认为是天生高贵的人,处于最上等地位,而广大农奴则被划为下等人。命价也有高低不同,上等人“命价为与尸体等重的黄金”,屠夫、铁匠等下等下级的人,“命价仅值一根草绳”。不同等级的人触犯同一刑律,量刑标准和处置方法也不相同。仆人使主人受伤的,要砍掉仆人的手或脚;主人打伤仆人,则不付给任何赔偿费。农奴主和农奴在法律上的地位极其不平等,农奴主拥有对农奴和奴隶的生杀予夺权,他们用剜目、割肉、割舌、断手、剁脚、抽筋、戴铐等野蛮刑罚,来维护对农奴和奴隶的统治。
The Kashag (cabinet) of old Tibet prescribed that all serfs must stay on the land within the manors of their owners. They were not allowed to leave without permission; fleeing the manor was forbidden. "All serfs have owners and all plots of land are assigned." Serfs were possessed by the three major estate-holders (local government officials, nobles and upper-ranking lamas in monasteries). They remained serfs from generation to generation, and confined to the land of their owners. All serfs and their livestock able to labor had to till the plots of land assigned to them and provide corvee labor. Once serfs lost their ability to labor, they were deprived of livestock, farm tools and land, and their status was degraded to that of slave. Since serfs were their private property, the three major estate-holders could use them as gambling stakes, mortgages for debt, present them as gifts, or transfer and trade them. All serfs needed permission from their owners to marry, and male and female serfs belonging to different owners had to pay "redemption fees" before such permission was granted. After marriage, serfs were also taxed on their newborn children, which were registered the moment they were born, so sealing their fate as lifelong serfs. Serfs that needed to make a living in other places were required to pay "servitudetax," and had to produce proof of having paid such tax or they would otherwise be punished as fugitives. 旧西藏的噶厦政府规定,农奴只能固定在所属领主的庄园土地上,不得擅自离开,绝对禁止逃亡。“人不无主、地不无差”,三大领主强制占有农奴人身,农奴世世代代依附领主,作为土地的附属物束缚在土地上。凡是人力和畜力能种地的,一律得种差地,并支乌拉差役。农奴一旦丧失劳动能力,就收回牲畜、农具、差地,降为奴隶。三大领主还把农奴当作私有财产随意支配,用于赌博、抵债、赠送、转让和买卖。农奴的婚姻必须取得领主的同意,不同领主的农奴婚嫁要缴纳“赎身费”。农奴生小孩要到领主那里缴纳出生税,登记入册,注定终身为奴。农奴如果被迫流落外地谋生,要向原属领主交“人役税”,持交税证明,才不至于被当作逃亡户处理。
After presiding over the enthronement ceremony of the 14th Dalai Lama in 1940, Wu Zhongxin, chief of the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs of the Kuomintang Government, described the rulers' oppression and the people's sufferings in old Tibet in his "Report on Tibetan Affairs on a Mission": "Located in frigid highlands, Tibet has rare agricultural products. The people live a hard life, whereas the Tibetan authorities do their utmost to oppress and exploit them, making the lives of the Tibetans one of hell and misery. The Tibetan authorities regard the people as slaves and beasts of burden and do not pay them as a rule; the people even have to find their own food and horse fodder; meanwhile they endure incessant, copious and complicated corvee labor and never enjoy days of peace. You can thus imagine how harassed they are. The authorities can issue an order to appropriate the people's property without compensation and bestow such property on lamaseries or meritorious nobles. In short, in Tibet, the people have lost their guarantee of survival and freedom, and their miserable life is beyond description." 1940年前往主持十四世达赖喇嘛坐床的国民政府蒙藏委员会委员长吴忠信在《奉使办理藏事报告书》中,对旧西藏统治者对人民的压迫以及人民的悲惨痛苦处境有这样的描述:“西藏因地处高寒,农产稀少,人民生活本极困难,而西藏当局压迫剥削更无所不用其极,使藏民生活堕入人间地狱,其苦乃不可言。西藏当局视人民直如奴隶牛马,照例不付代价,即伙食马料亦须由人民自备,而差徭纷繁几无宁日,人民受扰之剧可以想见。政府复可一纸命令无代价的征收人民之财产,或将此种财产赏给寺庙或贵族中之有功者。总之,在西藏境内,人民已失去其生存与自由之保障,其生活之痛苦实非言语所可形容也。”
Ruled by feudal serfdom under theocracy, serfs had no means of production, and their right to subsistence was under threat. 在封建农奴制度统治之下,农奴没有生产资料,生存权受到严重威胁。
In old Tibet, the three major estate-holders and their agents accounted for only five percent of Tibet's population, but they owned almost all of Tibet's farmland, pastures, forests, mountains, rivers, and beaches, as well as most of the livestock. About 95 percent of old Tibet's population was made up of serfs, including "tralpa" as they are known in the Tibetan language (people who tilled plots of land assigned to them and who were obligated to provide corvee labor for serf owners), "duiqoin" (small households with chimneys emitting smoke), and "nangzan" (hereditary household slaves who were deprived of any means of production and personal freedom). They had no means of production and suffered cruel economic exploitation. 旧西藏,占人口只有5%的三大领主(官家、贵族、寺庙上层僧侣)及其代理人,几乎占有全部的耕地、牧场、森林、山川、河流、河滩以及大部分牲畜,而占人口多达95%的农奴,包括“差巴”(领种份地,向农奴主支差役的人)、“堆穷”(意为冒烟的小户)、“朗生”(一无所有,世代为奴),却不掌握生产资料,遭受残酷的经济剥削。
The first exploitation serfs suffered was land rent. Serf owners on feudal manors divided the land into two parts: The largest part was kept as manor demesne while smaller lots were rented to serfs under stringent conditions. To use the lots, serfs had to work on the demesne with their own farm implements and provide their own food. Such unpaid labor constituted the rent they paid to serf owners. Most of the grain that serfs harvested from the lots was finally taken away by estate-holders. A "tralpa" could only keep 100-150 kilograms of grain annually, which was not enough to live on; his diet mainly consisted of wild herbs and weeds mixed with a little grain. In addition to the heavy land rent paid in the form of labor, serfs had to pay numerous taxes and fees. 农奴遭受的第一重剥削是地租。在庄园里,农奴主把土地分成两部分:大部分为农奴主的自营地,一小部分是以奴役性的条件分给农奴耕种的“份地”。农奴为了领得“份地”,必须自带工具和口粮,在农奴主的自营地上无偿服劳役。这些无偿的劳动,就是缴纳给农奴主的劳役地租。而农奴在“份地”里收获的大部分粮食最终又都被领主收走了。“差巴”一年所得不过二三百斤,连糊口都不够,主要靠吃野菜和野草,再掺上一点粮食过日子。除了通过劳役缴纳沉重的地租外,农奴还必须缴纳名目繁多的税费。
The second exploitation serfs suffered was corvee labor - a broad term covering not only corvee, but taxes and levies, and rents for land and livestock. The former local government of Tibet alone levied more than 200 kinds of taxes. Serfs had to contribute more than 50 percent or sometimes even 70 to 80 percent of their labor, unpaid, to the government and estate-holders. Corvee labor was divided into two kinds: one was that which serfs provided to the estate-holders they were bonded to and their agents; the other was the unpaid work serfs did for the local government of Tibet and its subordinates. The heaviest was transport corvee, because Tibet is large but sparsely populated and transport was inconvenient, necessitating the transport of all kinds of goods by humans or pack animals. Year after year, serfs were made to transport materials over mountains and rivers for the local government. This gave rise to the saying, "The boots have no soles, and the backs of the cattle are hairless." 农奴遭受的第二重剥削是乌拉差。乌拉差是一种包括徭役、赋税、地(畜)租在内的含义十分广泛的差税总称。旧西藏仅地方政府征收的差税就达200多种。农奴为地方政府和庄园领主所支的差,一般要占农奴户劳动量的50%以上,有的高达70%-80%。乌拉差役又有内、外差之分。内差是农奴向直接依附的领主及其代理人支的差役。外差是农奴给西藏地方政府及其下属机构支的差役。其中农奴负担最重的是运输差。西藏地广人稀,交通不便,各种物资的运输全靠人背畜驮。农奴长年累月跋山涉水为地方政府运输物资,支差之苦正如谚语所言:“靴子无底,牛背无毛。”
The third exploitation serfs suffered was usury. In old Tibet, the three major estate-holders were all exploiters of usury. The local government of Tibet had many money-lending agencies, and lending money and collecting interest were among officials' duties. Many monasteries also participated in money-lending. Revenue from usury made up 25 to 30 percent of the total revenue of the three major monasteries, namely Drepung, Sera and Ganden. Most aristocrats were also engaged in usury, the interest of which accounted for 15 percent of their family revenues. Serfs had to borrow money to survive, and more than 90 percent of serf households were in debt. Serfs were burdened with new debts, debts passed down from previous generations, debts resulting from joint liability, and debts apportioned among all the serfs. One third of these were the debts passed down from previous generations which could never be repaid, even by succeeding generations, due to the imposition of compound interest. 农奴遭受的第三重剥削是高利贷。在旧西藏,三大领主都是大大小小的高利贷剥削者。西藏地方政府设有放债机构,放债、收息成为各级官员的行政职责。西藏很多寺庙也参与放债,高利贷盘剥的收入占三大寺总收入的25%-30%。贵族绝大多数也放高利贷,债息在其家庭收入中一般要占15%。农奴为了活命不得不频繁举债,欠债的农奴占农奴总数的90%以上。农奴所负的债务,形式上分为新债、子孙债、连保债、集体摊派债等等。其中1/3以上是子孙债,也称旧债,是祖祖辈辈欠下的。这种债由于利上加利,永远也还不完。
Feudal serfdom under theocracy seriously obstructed social progress in Tibet. At the time of the peaceful liberation in 1951, there was almost no trace of modern industry, commerce, science and technology, education, culture, or health care. With no roads in the modern sense, Tibet was cut off from the outside world. Primitive farming had long been used in agricultural production, and farm tools were rudimentary. Herdsmen had to travel from place to place to find pasture for their livestock. There were few strains and breeds of grains and animals, and some had even degenerated. The level of both the productive forces and social development was thus extremely low. 政教合一的封建农奴制度严重阻碍着社会进步。直到1951年和平解放前,西藏没有现代工商业,现代科技、教育、文化、卫生事业几乎是空白,没有一条现代意义上的公路,西藏与外界几乎隔绝;农业生产长期处于原始耕作状态,劳动工具原始简单,牧业基本是自然游牧方式,农牧品种单一且退化,整个生产力水平和社会发展十分低下,社会发育程度极低。
French traveler Alexandra David-Neel described people's life in her book Le vieux Tibet Face a la Chine nouvelle (When Old Tibet Meets New China), "These poor people can only stay on their sterile land forever. They lose all human freedom, and become poorer and poorer each year." The people had no basic right to subsistence, much less to development. They were deprived of the right to education, and could not be schooled in their native language and culture. By the 1950s, the 2,000 or more studying in old-style government-run schools and old-style private schools were exclusively aristocrats; the illiteracy rate of the young and the middle-aged was 95 percent. The people had no right to economic development. The three major estate-holders squeezed profits from serfs, but did not update their tools; serfs worked day and night, but could not make more social products because they had no capability for social reproduction. 法国旅行家亚历山大·大卫·妮尔在《古老的西藏面对新生的中国》一书中这样描写当时人民的情形:“这些可怜的人们只能永远待在他们贫瘠的土地上。他们完全失去了一切人的自由,一年更比一年穷。”广大人民没有基本的生存权,更没有发展权。他们被剥夺了受教育的权利,不能学习民族的语言文化,到20世纪50年代时,西藏仅有2000多贵族子弟在旧式官办学校和私塾学习,青壮年文盲率高达95%。广大人民没有经济发展权,三大领主只从农奴那里榨取暴利,却不更新生产工具,农奴没日没夜地劳作,也不能创造更多的社会产品,没有社会再生产的能力。
The feudal serfdom under theocracy in old Tibet was savage, cruel and backward, like the dark society of medieval Europe. In his book The Unveiling of Lhasa, British military journalist Edmund Candler, who visited Lhasa in 1904, recorded details of the old Tibetan society: "...at present, the people are medieval, not only in their system of government and their religion, their inquisition, their witchcraft, their incarnations, their ordeals by fire and boiling oil, but in every aspect of their daily life." 旧西藏政教合一的封建农奴制度之野蛮、残酷、落后,犹如黑暗的欧洲中世纪。1904年到过拉萨的英国随军记者埃德蒙·坎德勒在《拉萨真面目》中有这样的描述:当时的西藏“人民还停留在中世纪的年代,不仅仅是在他们的政体、宗教方面,在他们的严厉惩罚、巫术、灵童转世以及要经受烈火与沸油的折磨方面是如此,而且在他们日常生活的所有方面也都不例外”。
II. Embarking on the Road to Development and Progress 二、走上发展进步道路
After three important historical stages - from its peaceful liberation and democratic reform to the establishment of the autonomous region - Tibet has taken the road of regional ethnic autonomy. This historic process was a correct choice the people made to realize liberation and be their own masters, and it was in the fundamental interest of all ethnic groups of Tibet. 西藏走上民族区域自治道路,经历了和平解放、民主改革和自治区成立三个重要历史发展阶段。这一历史发展过程,是人民翻身解放、实现当家作主的正确选择,符合西藏各族人民的根本利益。
-- Driving out imperialist forces, and realizing peaceful liberation --驱逐帝国主义势力,实现和平解放
After the Opium War of 1840, imperialist forces intensified aggression on China, gradually reducing the country to a semi-colonial, semi-feudal society. China's Tibet region also suffered imperialist aggression. In face of the British invasions of 1888 and 1904, Tibetan military and civilians put up a heroic resistance, but it failed due to the corrupt Qing government and declining national strength, and feudal serfdom. Britain coerced the Qing government, even bypassing it and directly forcing the local government of Tibet to sign unequal treaties, thus grabbing a series of privileges in Tibet that seriously damaged the sovereignty of China. Economically, it forcibly opened trading ports there, making Gyantse and Yadong two ports where permanent British trade representatives resided and official institutions were set up. Militarily, it stationed troops, one company in Gyantse and a platoon in Yadong. In addition, it built such infrastructure as posts, telecommunications, and courier stations managed and run by the British that served Britain's pillaging, and provided long-term service for British and Indian officers and a few Tibetan separatists. 1840年鸦片战争后,帝国主义侵华日甚一日,中国逐步沦为半殖民地半封建社会。中国的西藏地区也遭到了帝国主义的侵略。1888年和1904年,面对英国的侵略,西藏军民进行了英勇的抵抗,但由于清朝政府的腐败、国力的衰落和封建农奴制度的没落,抵抗以失败告终。英国通过强迫当时的清朝政府甚至绕开清朝政府直接胁迫西藏地方政府与其签订不平等条约,在西藏攫取了严重损害中国主权的一系列特权。经济上开设商埠,强行通商,划定江孜、亚东为商埠,常驻英国商务代表,设立固定的官方机构。军事上驻扎军队,在江孜常驻一个连,在亚东常驻一个排。建立由英国人管理、经营并为掠夺服务的基础设施,包括邮电设施和驿站等,长期为英、印人员和少数西藏分裂分子提供服务。
It was the urgent desire of all ethnic groups in Tibet and of upper-class patriots to free Tibet from imperialist aggression. The founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949 was a great inspiration for the people of Tibet. They keenly expected the Central People's Government of China to liberate Tibet and drive out imperialist powers at the earliest opportunity. On October 1, 1949, the very day the People's Republic was founded, the 10th Panchen Erdeni telegraphed Chairman Mao Zedong and Commander-in-Chief Zhu De, expressing his support for the Central People's Government and urging the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) to liberate Tibet as soon as possible. In December 1949, Reting Yeshe Tsultrim, aide to the Fifth Regent Reting Rinpoche who suffered persecution from pro-British forces, arrived in Xining, Qinghai Province, to report to the PLA on imperialist attempts to destroy Tibet's internal unity, urging the PLA to liberate Tibet without delay. Sherab Gyatso, a famous master of Tibetan Buddhism, delivered a talk in Xi'an, denouncing the imperialists for hatching a plot through which Lhasa authorities would seek "independence." 摆脱帝国主义侵略,是西藏各族人民和上层爱国人士的迫切愿望。1949年10月1日新中国成立,对西藏人民产生巨大鼓舞,他们热切盼望中央人民政府早日解放西藏,驱逐帝国主义势力。十世班禅于中华人民共和国成立当日,致电毛泽东主席和朱德总司令,表示热忱拥护中央人民政府,请求人民解放军早日解放西藏。1949年12月,遭受亲英势力迫害而逃往内地的原西藏摄政热振活佛的近侍堪布益西楚臣,到青海西宁向人民解放军控诉帝国主义破坏西藏内部团结的罪行,要求迅速解放西藏。著名藏传佛教大师喜饶嘉措在西安发表谈话,谴责帝国主义策划拉萨当局进行所谓“独立”的阴谋。
Through the efforts of the Central People's Government and of the people of Tibet, the Agreement of the Central People's Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet (the "17-Article Agreement") was signed on May 23, 1951. The first article stipulated, "The people of Tibet should unite and drive out imperialist aggressive forces; they will return to the family of the People's Republic of China." In the agreement, the local government of Tibet promised to "actively assist the PLA in entering Tibet and consolidating national defense." On May 25, Chairman Mao Zedong of the People's Revolutionary Military Committee of the Central People's Government issued an order, so marking the PLA's entry into Tibet. All ethnic groups of Tibet expressed heartfelt support for and a warm welcome to the PLA, and helped the troops enter Tibet. 在中央政府和西藏人民的共同努力下,1951年5月23日签订了《中央人民政府和西藏地方政府关于和平解放西藏办法的协议》(简称“十七条协议”)。“十七条协议”一条便是:“西藏人民团结起来,驱逐帝国主义侵略势力出西藏,西藏人民回到中华人民共和国祖国大家庭中来。”在“十七条协议”中,西藏地方政府也承诺,“积极协助人民解放军进入西藏,巩固国防。”5月25日中央人民政府人民革命军事委员会主席毛泽东发布进军训令,全面拉开进军西藏序幕。西藏各族人民衷心拥护、热烈欢迎人民解放军进藏,支持帮助进藏部队。
The PLA troops' entry to Tibet to drive out imperialist forces and abolish unequal treaties that imperialist forces had imposed on the people of Tibet was a major historical event signifying that the Chinese nation, including the Tibetan group, had realized liberation and independence. It utterly changed the history and destiny of Tibet, and provided its various ethnic groups with a fundamental guarantee of being liberated and becoming masters. 中国人民解放军进军西藏,驱逐帝国主义势力出西藏,废除帝国主义强加给西藏人民的不平等条约,是实现包括藏族人民在内的中华民族解放和独立的重大历史事件,自此彻底改变了西藏的历史命运,为实现西藏各族人民翻身当家作主提供了根本保障。
--Abolishing feudal serfdom, and the people becoming masters --废除封建农奴制,实现人民翻身作主
In the mid-1950s, feudal serfdom under theocracy came to an end. To preserve serfdom, the reactionary forces from the upper class of Tibet tore up the "17-Article Agreement" and staged an all-out armed rebellion in Lhasa on March 10, 1959. On March 22, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) issued the Instructions on Several Policy Issues about Carrying out Democratic Reform in Suppressing the Rebellion in Tibet (draft), demanding that troops mobilize the people to carry out democratic reform amid the battles to suppress the rebellion. On March 28, Premier Zhou Enlai promulgated a State Council decree, dissolving the local government of Tibet and ordering that local government power be taken over by the Preparatory Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region, with the 10th Panchen Erdeni acting as its chairman. In the meantime, the Central People's Government implemented a policy of "suppressing the rebellion while conducting reform," and led the Tibetan people in a surging tide of democratic reform. The reform wrecked the feudal serfdom under theocracy, liberating the people and making them their own masters, so creating important social and historical conditions for the establishment of regional ethnic autonomy. 20世纪50年代中叶,西藏政教合一的封建农奴制度走到了尽头。1959年3月10日,西藏反动上层为永保政教合一的封建农奴制度不变,公然撕毁“十七条协议”,在拉萨地区发起全面武装叛乱。22日,中共中央发出《关于在西藏平息叛乱中实行民主改革的若干政策问题的指示(草案)》,要求在平息叛乱的战斗中,必须同时坚决地放手发动群众,实行民主改革。28日,周恩来总理发布国务院命令,决定解散西藏地方政府,由西藏自治区筹备委员会行使西藏地方政府职权,由十世班禅额尔德尼代理西藏自治区筹备委员会主任委员职务。与此同时,中央人民政府提出“边平叛边改革”的方针,领导西藏人民掀起了波澜壮阔的民主改革运动。通过民主改革,彻底摧毁了政教合一的封建农奴制度,实现了人民翻身解放,为建立民族区域自治制度,创造了重要社会历史条件。
Abolishing the feudal serfdom and establishing the people's regime created institutional conditions for regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet. By the end of 1960, Tibet had established 1,009 organs of state power at the township level, 283 at the district level, 78 at the county level (including county-level districts), and eight at the prefecture (city) level. Meanwhile, more than 4,400 liberated serfs and slaves had become government officials at various levels. All township-level government officials were from the Tibetan group, 90 percent of district-level government officials were Tibetan, and more than 300 Tibetans held leading posts at or above the county level. 废除封建农奴制度,建立起人民政权,为在西藏实行民族区域自治,提供了制度条件。到1960年底,全区成立乡级政权1009个,区级政权283个;78个县(包括县级区)和8个专区(市)也成立了人民政权。与此同时,有4400多名翻身农奴和奴隶出身的基层干部成长起来。乡级干部全是藏族,区级干部90%以上是藏族,并且有300多名藏族干部担任了县以上领导职务。
In April 1961, general elections at the township level were held all over Tibet. Hundreds of thousands of liberated serfs and slaves exercised the democratic rights that they had never enjoyed. In August 1965, elections at the township and county levels were completed in Tibet. Altogether 1,359 townships and towns conducted elections at the basic level, and 567 townships and towns held their people's congresses to exercise their functions and power. The people's democratic organs of state power at the township level were established in 92 percent of the Region, the majority of participants being liberated serfs and slaves. In addition, 54 counties held their first session of people's congresses to elect the county magistrates and deputy magistrates, established people's committees and elected deputies to the people's congresses. 1961年4月,西藏各地乡一级基层普选开始,百万翻身农奴开始行使从来没有过的民主权利。1965年8月,西藏乡县选举工作完成,有1359个乡、镇进行了基层选举,有567个乡、镇召开了人民代表会议代行人民代表大会职权,西藏大约92%的地方建立了以翻身农奴和奴隶为主的乡人民政权,54个县召开了第一届人民代表会议,选出了正副县长,建立了县人民委员会,并选出了人民代表大会代表。
Abolishing economic privileges of serf owners enabled the people to become owners of the means of production, greatly liberated the productive forces, and protected Tibetan people's right to subsistence, laying the physical foundation for the practice of regional ethnic autonomy. The feudal serfdom not only infringed upon human rights and destroyed human qualities, but also effectively put a brake on development of social productivity and left people's basic need for clothing and food unguaranteed. During the democratic reform, about 20,000 "nangzan" settled, and were allotted 2,520,000 kilograms of grain. The democratic reform liberated and developed Tibet's social productivity; as a result, the working people of Tibet were freed from heavy corvee, taxes, and usurious exploitation, and were able to keep all the fruits of their hard work. Their enthusiasm for production ran unprecedentedly high. 废除农奴主的经济特权,人民成为生产资料的主人,极大地解放了生产力,保障了西藏人民的生存权利,为实行民族区域自治,奠定了物质基础。封建农奴制度不仅侵犯人权,摧残人性,而且严重阻碍社会生产力发展,人民连基本的温饱都没有保障。民主改革中,约2万朗生安了家,得到安家粮504万斤。民主改革解放和发展了西藏的社会生产力,西藏劳动人民再不受农奴主的沉重差税和高利贷剥削,劳动果实全部留归自己,生产积极性空前高涨。
Abolishing religious privileges of serf owners shattered the people's spiritual shackles, providing ideological and cultural conditions for the implementation of regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet. Under theocracy, religion was directly controlled by serf owners and used as a tool for ruling and oppressing the people. To sanctify feudal privileges and enslave the people spiritually, the three major estate-holders regarded any new idea, new culture or scientific knowledge that was contrary to their will as heresy, imprisoning people's thinking and hindering the spread of education and scientific and cultural development. Through the democratic reform, Tibet abolished all feudal privileges, implemented the policy of freedom of religious belief, and separated religion from government, so preventing religion from interfering in its politics, economy, culture and social life. The people were thus freed from the spiritual shackles of theocracy. 废除农奴主的宗教特权,打碎了精神枷锁,为实行民族区域自治,提供了思想文化条件。在“政教合一”的制度下,宗教直接掌握在农奴主手中,被异化为实施统治压迫人民的工具。三大领主为了使封建特权神圣化,从精神上奴役人民,凡是与其意志相违背的任何新思想、新文化和科技知识,都被视为异端邪说,禁锢人们的思想,阻碍教育的普及和科学文化的发展。民主改革后,西藏废除一切封建特权,实行宗教信仰自由政策,实行政教分离,宗教不得干预政治、经济、文化和社会生活,人民群众从政教合一的精神枷锁中解放出来。
-- Establishing Tibet Autonomous Region, and taking the socialist road --成立自治区,走上社会主义道路
It was a common wish of the people of Tibet to exercise regional ethnic autonomy. The "17-Article Agreement" stipulated, "According to the ethnic policy in the Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), under the unified leadership of the Central People's Government, the Tibetan people shall have the right to exercise regional ethnic autonomy." In 1954, after the First National People's Congress closed, Mao Zedong, top leader of the Central People's Government, met with the 14th Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Erdeni. Mao told them, "Tibet will not have a military and political committee; instead, the Preparatory Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region will be established to prepare for the exercise of regional ethnic autonomy." The two agreed. Later, according to stipulations in the Constitution about the practice of regional ethnic autonomy, the central government started work on the establishment of Tibet Autonomous Region. In November 1954, the central government proposed to establish the Preparatory Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region. At its Seventh Plenary Meeting held in March 1955, the State Council specifically studied and discussed the matter and issues relating to Tibet's construction. Following the meeting, the central government gave specific instructions on the matter. On April 22, 1956, the founding conference of the Preparatory Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region was held in the newly built Great Hall of Lhasa. Over 300 delegates and non-voting delegates from all ethnic groups, social strata, religions, and social groups throughout Tibet attended the conference. This was the first time in the history of Tibet that people of broad representation gathered for democratic consultation and discussion. The 14th Dalai Lama became chairman of the Preparatory Committee, while the 10th Panchen Erdeni became first deputy chairman. The Preparatory Committee was a consultative administrative body as an organ of political power, an important stepping stone for the exercise of regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet. Its establishment pushed forward the establishment of Tibet Autonomous Region. However, the armed rebellion in 1959 seriously affected the work of its establishment. After the rebellion was quelled, the establishment was carried out smoothly. 实行民族区域自治制度,是西藏广大人民的共同愿望。“十七条协议”中规定:“根据中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领的民族政策,在中央人民政府统一领导之下,西藏人民有实行民族区域自治的权利。”1954年第一届全国人民代表大会闭幕后,中央政府领导人毛泽东接见十四世达赖和十世班禅,并告诉他们,“今后西藏不成立军政委员会,而直接成立西藏自治区筹备委员会,为实行民族区域自治做准备。”两人均表示同意。之后,根据宪法中关于实行民族区域自治制度的规定,中央着手西藏自治区成立事宜。1954年11月,中央提出了成立西藏自治区筹备委员会的意见。1955年3月,国务院第七次全体会议专题研究了成立西藏自治区筹备委员会和西藏建设的有关问题。此后,中央对西藏自治区筹备委员会的成立进行了具体指导。1956年4月22日,西藏自治区筹备委员会成立大会在新落成的拉萨大礼堂隆重举行,包括西藏各地区、各民族、各阶层、各教派和各群众团体在内的300多名代表参加或列席了大会,这是西藏历史上第一次有如此广泛代表性的人士欢聚一堂,民主协商、共议大事。十四世达赖为西藏自治区筹备委员会主任委员,十世班禅为西藏自治区筹备委员会第一副主任委员。西藏自治区筹备委员会是一个具有政权性质的协商办事机构,是西藏实行民族区域自治的重要步骤。西藏自治区筹备委员会的成立,使自治区成立工作得到积极推进,但1959年武装叛乱的发生,严重影响了自治区成立工作的进行。平息叛乱后,自治区成立工作得到顺利进行。
On September 1, 1965, the First Session of the First People's Congress of Tibet Autonomous Region was inaugurated in Lhasa, and the organs and leaders of the Region were elected, with Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme as the chairman of the People's Committee. A large number of liberated serfs held leading posts in organs of political power at different levels of the Region. The establishment of Tibet Autonomous Region signified that Tibet had set up the people's democratic government and begun to exercise thoroughgoing regional ethnic autonomy. Since then, the people of Tibet have enjoyed the right to handle local affairs themselves, and embarked on the socialist road to development and progress. 1965年9月1日,西藏自治区第一届人民代表大会第一次会议在拉萨开幕。西藏自治区第一届人民代表大会选举产生了西藏自治区机关及其领导人,阿沛·阿旺晋美当选为自治区人民委员会主席,一大批翻身农奴担任了自治区各级政权机关的领导职务。西藏自治区的成立,标志着西藏建立了人民民主政权,开始全面实行民族区域自治制度。自此,西藏人民享有了自主管理本地区事务的权利,走上了发展进步的社会主义道路。
III. The Political System Suited to China's Actual Conditions 

三、符合国情的政治制度

Implementing the system of regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet conforms to China's reality as a unified multiethnic country. 在西藏实行民族区域自治制度,符合中国统一的多民族国家基本国情。
China is a unified multiethnic country inhabited by 55 minority ethnic groups, including the Mongolian, Hui, Tibetan, Uygur, Zhuang, Korean, and Manchu, in addition to the Han ethnic group. The Chinese nation is a big, pluralistic and integrated family whose constituent ethnic groups have all contributed to national development and cultural innovation. The origins and development of China's ethnic groups are indigenous, pluralistic and diverse. All have formed and evolved in different ways, yet in the general trend, have developed into a unified multiethnic country and converged into the unified and stable Chinese nation. As early as the pre-Qin period, Chinese ancestors developed the concepts of "world" and "grand unification." In 221 BC, the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) realized the first unification in history of China, and established prefectures and counties to rule the country. The central government of the Han Dynasty (206 BC- AD 220) and subsequent dynasties developed and consolidated China's unified multiethnic pattern. Despite the brief separatist regimes and regional splits that have occurred in Chinese history, unification has always been the mainstream and direction of national development. 中国是一个统一的多民族国家,除汉族外,还有蒙古、回、藏、维吾尔、壮、朝鲜、满等55个少数民族。中华民族是一个多元一体的大家庭,各民族都对祖国的发展和中华文化的创造作出了贡献。中国各民族的起源和发展有着本土性、多元性、多样性的特点。中国各民族形成和发展的情况虽然各不相同,但总的方向是发展成为统一的多民族国家,汇聚成为统一稳固的中华民族。早在先秦时期,中国先民的“天下”观念和“大一统”理念便已形成。公元前221年,秦朝实现了中国历史上第一次大一统,在全国设郡县加以统治。汉朝(公元前206年-公元220年)及汉以后的历代中央政权发展和巩固了统一的多民族国家的格局。中国历史上虽然出现过短暂的割据局面和局部分裂,但国家统一始终是主流和方向。
Ever since ancient times, Tibet has been an integral part of China, and the Tibetan ethnic group has been a communal member of the Chinese nation sharing a common destiny. The ancestors of the Tibetan and other ethnic groups who lived on the Tibetan Plateau in ancient times established extensive contacts with China's inland, and made significant contributions to the formation and development of the country. From the 13th century, when the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) included Tibet under its central administrative jurisdiction, to the time before 1949 when the People's Republic of China was founded, the central governments of all dynasties in China ruled Tibet as part of the country. On this footing, they adopted special policies for Tibet, taking into account the "special local customs and conditions," and adopted an administrative structure and governance approaches that were distinct from those in other parts of China. 西藏自古就是中国的一部分,藏族是中华民族命运共同体的一员。藏族和其他民族的祖先,从远古就生活在西藏高原上,并与中国内地建立了广泛的联系,为中华民族命运共同体的形成与发展作出了重要贡献。自13世纪元朝将西藏纳入中央政府行政管辖起,直至1949年中华人民共和国成立前,中国历代中央政权在将西藏纳入统一国家的前提下,还采取了“因俗而治”“因事而治”等特殊的政策,在行政建制和治理方式上,采取与全国其他地方有所差异的措施。
In the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), the central government established the Supreme Control Commission of Buddhism (later renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs), and set up in Tibet the Chief Military Command under the Pacification Commissioner's Office to directly manage the region's political and military affairs. The Yuan court stationed troops in Tibet, and set up 13 organs, including the 10,000-man Brigades and 1,000-man Battalions under the Pacification Commissioner's Office. The Yuan court set up courier stations on the road leading from Tibet to the capital city of Dadu, and sent officials to Tibet three times to conduct census. Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan, appointed Phagpa from the Sakya School of Tibetan Buddhism as Imperial Preceptor. Later, when the Kagyu School replaced the Sakya School, Emperor Shundi appointed the Kagyu leader Changchub Gyaltsen "Ta Situ." 元朝(1271-1368年)时期,中央设置总制院(后改为宣政院),在西藏地区设立宣慰使司都元帅府,中央直接管理西藏军政事务。元朝派军驻扎西藏,在宣慰使司下设13个万户府、千户所等机构。元朝在西藏还设立大小驿站,通往大都;派官员入藏进行三次户口清查。元世祖忽必烈任命萨迦派八思巴为帝师。后来噶举派取代萨迦派的地位,元顺帝时封其首领强曲坚赞为“大司徒”。
The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) generally followed the Yuan administrative system for Tibet. Politically, the Ming court implemented a policy of multiple enfeoffment, conferring the titles "Prince of Dharma" and "Imperial Empowerments Master" upon religious leaders in Tibet; economically, it promoted the tea-horse trade to increase Tibet's trade and exchanges with other regions; in terms of organizational structure, it established the u-Tsang Regional Military Commission in today's central Tibet and the Do-kham Regional Military Commission in eastern Tibet, both subordinated to Shaanxi Regional Military Commission, and the Ngari Commanding Tribal Office in western Tibet. 明朝(1368-1644年)时期,基本沿袭了元朝对西藏地方的管理制度。在政治上,实施多封众建,给西藏各地宗教领袖封以“法王”“灌顶国师”等名号;在经济上,发展茶马互市,促进西藏与其他地区的贸易和往来;在机构设置上,在今西藏中部和东部设立“乌斯藏行都指挥使司”“朵甘行都指挥使司”,隶属于陕西行都指挥使司,在西部设立“俄力思军民元帅府”。
In the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the Court of Tribal Affairs (later the Ministry of Tribal Affairs) took charge of Tibetan affairs. In 1653 and 1713, the Qing emperors conferred the Dalai Lamas and Panchen Erdenis of the Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism that appeared in the late Ming Dynasty, and established the system of lot-drawing from the golden urn to confirm the reincarnated soul boy of a deceased Living Buddha. In 1727, the Qing government started to station grand ministers resident in Tibet. In 1751, Emperor Qianlong appointed the Seventh Dalai Lama to administer the local government of Tibet, established the Kashag (cabinet) composed of four Kalons (ministers). In 1793, Ordinance by the Imperial House Concerning Better Governance of Tibet (the "29 Articles") was promulgated to enhance the Qing court's administration of Tibet. 清朝(1644-1911年)时期,由理藩院(清末改为理藩部)主管西藏事务。1653年和1713年清朝皇帝册封兴起于明末的格鲁派达赖世系和班禅世系,后来又建立金瓶掣签制度,完善了活佛转世制度。1727年,清朝中央在西藏建立驻藏大臣制度。1751年,乾隆皇帝授命七世达赖执政,建立噶厦,设噶伦四人。1793年,颁布《钦定藏内善后章程二十九条》,加强了对西藏的管理。
The central government continued to exercise sovereignty over Tibet during the Republic of China period (1912-1949). In 1912, the central government established the Bureau of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs (renamed the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Yuan in 1914) to replace the late Qing's Ministry of Tribal Affairs, and dispatched the commissioner resident in Tibet to exercise the functions and power of the grand minister resident in Tibet. In 1929, the nationalist government established the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission to exercise administrative jurisdiction of Tibet. In 1940, the nationalist government set up the Tibet Office of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission in Lhasa. The Organic Law of the Congress of the Republic of China stipulated the methods whereby the people of Tibet would participate in elections, and the rights of elected congressmen from Tibet to directly participate in deliberation and administration of state affairs. The identification and enthronement of both the 14th Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Erdeni were approved by the government of the Republic of China. 中华民国(1912-1949年)时期,中央政府继续对西藏实施主权管辖。1912年,中央政府设立蒙藏事务局,1914年改为蒙藏院,取代了清朝末年的理藩部职能,派驻藏办事长官履行驻藏大臣职权。1929年,国民政府设立蒙藏委员会,行使对西藏的行政管辖。1940年,国民政府在拉萨设立蒙藏委员会驻藏办事处。《中华民国国会组织法》规定了西藏地方民众参加选举的办法和被选举的议员直接参政的权利。十四世达赖和十世班禅的认定、坐床,均经当时的中华民国政府批准。
Since its birth in 1921, the CPC has supported ethnic equality and unity in China, vigorously exploring the path through which to achieve ethnic equality and resolve ethnic issues. Since the founding of the PRC in 1949, the Chinese government has promoted equality, unity, mutual support, fraternity, and common development and prosperity among all ethnic groups as fundamental principles under which to address ethnic issues and relations. Taking into consideration China's history and social conditions in modern times, the PRC did not choose the composite system (also known as the federal system) for its state structure, but the unitary system instead; it decided to exercise regional ethnic autonomy in areas inhabited by minority ethnic groups under unified state leadership, thus to ensure that ethnic minorities enjoy the rights of being masters of the country.
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 中国共产党从1921年诞生起就主张中国各民族平等团结,积极探索实现民族平等、解决民族问题的道路。1949年中华人民共和国建立后,中国政府把坚持各民族一律平等、团结、互助、友爱和共同发展、共同繁荣作为解决民族问题、处理民族关系的基本原则。考虑中国的历史国情和近现代社会发展的实际条件,新中国在选择国家结构形式时,没有选择复合制的形式,而是选择了单一制的形式,确定在国家的统一领导下,在少数民族地区实行民族区域自治制度,保证少数民族在国家生活中享有当家作主的权利。
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